Introduction
Suspended high above the treacherous Sierra Nevada wilderness in a fragile basket woven from reeds, a worker’s hands tremble as he gingerly inserts nitroglycerin into a hole drilled into the granite cliffside. Below him, the valley stretches endlessly, and above him, the sky offers no salvation. A single spark from a match ignites the fuse, sending fire creeping toward the explosives. He whistles—the signal for the men holding the rope to pull him up—but the basket does not move. Panic rises in his chest. Could this be his end? But just as the fire nears the explosive, a jolt tugs him upward, offering a glimmer of hope.
This scene, though fictionalized, echoes the real dangers faced by the workers who built the Transcontinental Railroad—one of the most audacious and perilous engineering projects in American history. It was a monumental achievement that connected the East and West coasts of the United States, fueling economic expansion and transforming the nation forever. But behind this triumph lay untold stories of suffering, corruption, and human sacrifice.
The Dream of a Railroad Across America
Long before California became part of the United States, a man named Asa Whitney envisioned a railroad that would stretch from the eastern states to the Pacific Ocean. In 1844, during a trade expedition to China, Whitney realized that a transcontinental railway would revolutionize commerce and migration. At the time, traveling from New York to the West Coast required one of three arduous and often deadly journeys:
- The Panama Route – A ship voyage to Panama, followed by a dangerous trek through the jungle, then another ship to California.
- Sailing Around Cape Horn – A treacherous 198-day sea journey around the southern tip of South America.
- The Overland Oregon Trail – A grueling, months-long trek filled with harsh weather, disease, and the constant threat of starvation or attack.
Whitney petitioned Congress for land to build his railroad, proposing a system where settlers would buy land along the tracks to fund construction. However, in 1845, Congress dismissed his idea as impossible. At the time, railroads in the U.S. were still in their infancy, and the notion of laying track across thousands of miles of unexplored and mountainous terrain seemed preposterous.
But Whitney’s idea refused to die. In 1848, the California Gold Rush ignited a massive migration westward, underscoring the need for a reliable transportation system. A new champion of the railroad, Theodore Judah, emerged with a plan that would change history.
The Birth of the Transcontinental Railroad
In 1854, businessman Charles Lincoln Wilson hired a young railroad surveyor, Theodore Judah, to explore potential routes for a railway in California. Judah successfully built the Sacramento Valley Railroad, and this success emboldened him to take on a grander vision—the Transcontinental Railroad.
However, political divisions threatened to derail his dream. Northern politicians refused to support a southern route through slave-owning states, while Southerners opposed a northern path. Judah proposed a compromise—a railroad along the 41st parallel, cutting through the rugged Sierra Nevada mountains via Donner Pass. This idea was met with skepticism; constructing a railroad through sheer granite cliffs and deep ravines was unprecedented.
But Judah was undeterred. He sought investors and eventually found four Sacramento businessmen willing to back his plan: Leland Stanford, Collis Huntington, Charles Crocker, and Mark Hopkins, later known as the Big Four. Together, they formed the Central Pacific Railroad (CPRR). Meanwhile, Congress authorized a second company, the Union Pacific Railroad (UPRR), to lay track westward from the Missouri River.
On July 1, 1862, President Abraham Lincoln signed the Pacific Railway Act, officially launching one of the most ambitious construction projects in American history.
The Race to Lay Tracks
The Pacific Railway Act promised federal land and subsidies for each mile of track built:
- $16,000 per mile in flatlands
- $32,000 per mile in foothills
- $48,000 per mile in mountainous terrain (equivalent to $1.4 million today)
This sparked an intense competition between the Central Pacific Railroad (CPRR), building east from Sacramento, and the Union Pacific Railroad (UPRR), building west from Omaha.
However, both companies faced significant challenges. The Union Pacific struggled with corruption—its leader, Thomas Durant, used fraudulent practices to profit off the project, delaying construction for years. Meanwhile, the Central Pacific faced brutal terrain, especially the Sierra Nevada mountains, which required blasting through granite and digging long tunnels.
A Workforce of Immigrants and Exploited Laborers
The demand for labor was immense, but American workers were reluctant to take on the grueling and dangerous jobs. Each company sought alternative solutions.
Chinese Workers and the Central Pacific Railroad
By 1865, the Central Pacific Railroad desperately needed more laborers. Charles Crocker suggested hiring Chinese immigrants, many of whom had arrived in California during the Gold Rush. At first, managers like James Strobridge resisted, believing the Chinese were too frail for the backbreaking work. But after a trial group of 50 men proved their resilience, the company began recruiting thousands directly from China.
Eventually, between 13,000 and 20,000 Chinese laborers worked on the railroad, making up 90% of the Central Pacific’s workforce. They faced horrific conditions:
- Paid $30 per month (less than white workers).
- Forced to cover their own food and housing.
- Assigned the most dangerous tasks, including handling nitroglycerin to blast tunnels through the mountains.
- Suffered from freezing temperatures, landslides, and deadly avalanches.
In 1867, the Chinese workers went on strike, demanding better pay and conditions. The company cut off their food supply, forcing them to return to work.
Irish, Black, and Civil War Veterans in the Union Pacific
On the Union Pacific side, a different workforce took shape. Irish immigrants, newly freed Black Americans, Italian and German immigrants, and Civil War veterans made up much of the labor force. These men faced their own challenges, including:
- Frequent Native American attacks, as the railroad cut through indigenous lands.
- Harsh living conditions in mobile tent towns known as “Hell on Wheels” settlements.
- Intense pressure to build quickly, leading to accidents and deaths.
The Final Push to Promontory Point
By 1869, both railroads were rushing to claim as much land and money as possible. Workers laid track at record speeds—one team from Central Pacific laid 10 miles in a single day.
But when the two railroads met, they nearly built past each other, unwilling to stop. It took President Ulysses S. Grant’s intervention to settle on a meeting point: Promontory Summit, Utah.
On May 10, 1869, the final spike—a 17.6-karat golden spike—was hammered into place, signifying the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad. The journey across America had been reduced from months to just one week.
The Railroad’s Impact—and Its Dark Side
The Transcontinental Railroad transformed the United States, revolutionizing trade, travel, and communication. But it came at a devastating cost:
- Over 1,000 workers died, mostly Chinese laborers.
- Native American tribes lost their lands, leading to violent conflicts and forced removals.
- The near-extermination of the buffalo crippled indigenous economies and food sources.
- Racist policies followed, including the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which barred Chinese immigrants from citizenship.
Despite these injustices, the railroad remains one of the greatest engineering achievements in American history. It united the country, spurred economic growth, and set the stage for the modern era.
FAQs About the Transcontinental Railroad
1. How long did it take to build the Transcontinental Railroad?
Construction lasted from 1863 to 1869, taking six years to complete.
2. How much did it cost to build?
The railroad cost an estimated $60 million (around $1.3 billion today).
3. How did the railroad affect Native American tribes?
It displaced indigenous people, destroyed buffalo populations, and led to violent conflicts between Native American tribes and settlers.
4. How did it change travel in the U.S.?
It cut travel time from months to one week, making coast-to-coast trips faster and cheaper.
5. What happened to the Chinese workers after construction ended?
Many were denied citizenship and faced severe discrimination, leading to restrictive immigration laws.
